SELJUKS
OF
ANATOLIA
: THE LATTER PERIOD
Aydoğan
DEMİR
Founded by Suleyman Shah, son of
Kutalmish, in Nicaea (Iznik) in 1075, Seljuks of Anatolia
concurrently fought and subdued the Byzantium Empire, the Crusaders,
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, Empire of Trebizond, Georgian Kingdom,
Cypriot Kingdom, Danishmendids, Mangujakids, Saltuqids, Artuqids and
Ayyubids. At one point,
Asia Minor
was mostly united under the Seljuks. In less than a century, what had been
a
land
of
Romans
became Turchia (Turkiye).
Seljuks of Anatolia knew well enough to reap the fruits of their newfound
geography. Not only did they utilize the rich plains of Anatolia, its
forests and mines, but they also managed to secure the vital spice and
silk roads that ran through
Anatolia
. This fact makes itself crystal clear in the construction of more than
250 caravanserais during the Seljuk period, most of which still attracts
people’s admiration and remains either intact or recently renovated for
cultural purposes.
Another issue that the Seljuks attributed special importance was
attracting foreign traders; they drafted and executed legal guarantees for
merchants travelling in the Seljuk realms. Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw I
(r.1205-1211) who conquered
Antalya
in 1207 issued imperial decrees and made treaties with Cypriot merchants,
thereby providing them with life and property securities, and paid
reparations for their damages due to piracy or grand-theft. Osman Turan
suggests that “Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw I, with an attempt to secure
and promote trade, paid these reparations, which were an essential part of
Seljuqid policy and constituted a form of state insurance.”
Izz ad-Din Kayka’us I (r.1211-1220) continued his father’s policies
and approved the renewal of a trade agreement with the Cypriot merchants.
The new agreement had special addendums to the treaty in effect and “gave
mutual non-confiscation pledges in cases of shipwrecks on the other
party’s shores, granted asylum rights to the merchants and their
crew, and guaranteed safe return of the deceased merchants’ goods to his
home country.”
Likewise, a new and more comprehensive treaty with the Venetian merchants
(dated
March 8 1220
) was signed during
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad I’s reign (1220-1237), and further expanded the trade
agreements network, setting a precedent for future trade accords. This new
treaty brought tax exemptions for trading of precious mines.
Turan further suggests that “Venetian merchants
were granted right of free passage into the Seljuk country to trade
valuable items such as gold or silver, but the exportation of these goods
was prohibited, which means that they were trying to allocate capital and
improve the treasury.”
Yet, Şerafettin Turan disagrees with Osman Turan and argues that
Kayqubad’s decree also mentions “the exemption of customs tax from
the exportation of valuable stones and pearls, processed or raw silver and
gold.” In other words, the exportation of these goods was promoted
as much as their importation. Şerafettin Turan adds “it would be
misleading to look at [Kayqubad’s] decree from a mono-causal point of
view, even if one assumes that it was enacted for purposes of promoting
trade.”
Regardless of this difference in interpretation,
Anatolia
during this period experienced an abundance of gold and silver. “During
the reign of the first Turkish Seljuk sultans, the only coins in use were
those that had been struck in the
Byzantium
or Islamic empires. Commensurate with the rising economic power of the
Seljuks, local coins in silver or gold were struck in Turkiye and due to
their high carats demand for Turkish gold and coins (dinar and dirham)
rose dramatically.”
Following the abrupt death of the Great
Sultan
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad I, Anatolian Seljuk state began to decline at a
substantial pace. The Baba Ishak Rebellion of 1240, Battle of Kösedag
in 1243, and Abaka Khan’s intervention into Anatolian administration in
1277 altogether constitute the most troublesome period in the history of
this disintegrating state. In the aftermath of the Mongol invasion, which
began in 1243 particularly after the death of Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw II
(r.1237-1246), exile, torture, dethronement and execution of Seljuk
Sultans became a common practice. What became a defining moment in the
Seljuk period of decline was the joint crowning of Ghiyas ad-Din
Kaykhusraw II’s three sons, Ala ad-Din Kayqubad II, Rukn ad-Din Kilic
Arslan IV and Izz ad-Din Kayka’us II aged 7, 9 and 11 respectively. The
Mongols obviously benefited from the quarrels between the three. They not
only received a heavy tribute from Anatolian rulers, but also arbitrarily
intervened in domestic politics to let their presence be known, and
marauded villages. When
Ala
ad-Din II died on his way to the Mongols to submit his allegiance, the
conflict between the remaining two brothers exacerbated and ultimately
divided the empire into two (1254-56; 1259-62). In a condescending manner,
Rukn ad-Din IV and Izz ad-Din II brothers went to see Hulagu Khan and upon
his orders, joined him in his
Syria
campaign.
Since some of these historical details fall beyond the
scope of our research, it would be fair to finish the background history
here, by simply adding that Izz ad-Din Kayka’us II lost the conflict
with his brother Rukn ad-Din Kilic Arslan IV, who managed to secure a
greater Mongol support. Having lost the rivalry, Izz ad-Din went to
Istanbul
first (1263) and later escaped to
Crimea
and spent the remaining 15 years of his life here. Cahen suggests that
“the people who currently live in Dobruca today is believed to be the
descendants of the Turcoman tribe, called the Gagavuz, who followed Izz
ad-Din Kayka’us II.
Securing the Mongol support, Rukn ad-Din Kilic Arslan
IV reestablished control over
Anatolia
particularly with the aid of Muinüddin Süleyman Pervane, who was the
most influential figure during this period. Earning the trust of the Il-Khanate,
Pervane labored hard to maintain order and peace in the society. Yet it
was impossible to regenerate the whole state mechanism, which stopped
functioning for 25 years with the death of the Great Sultan Ala ad-Din
Kayqubad I. Turcoman hordes had been uneasy ever since the Baba İshak
Rebellion. They had to leave their homes in Eastern Anatolia and
Azerbaijan
, struggling to survive at the outskirts of the Taurus Mountains and
Western Asia Minor
. The Turcoman beys and Karaman Oğullari, who resettled around
Denizli and the Taurus respectively, became a major threat to both the
Seljuks and Il-Khanate. On top of all this, Sultan Kilic Arslan IV and
Pervane began to experience major disagreements, upon which the latter
collaborated with the Mongols and executed the Arslan in 1266.
Pervane became a mentor and imperial advisor to Ghiyas
ad-Din Kaykhusraw III – the young son of the now dead sultan Kilic
Arslan IV. For a brief period of time, Pervane managed to establish
tranquility in
Anatolia
but later sought to declare independence from the Mongols through a
rapprochement with the Mamluk Sultan Baibars. This treacherous move
dragged
Anatolia
into another tragedy. In 1276, Hatir Oğlu - one of Pervane’s close aids
and the governor of Niğde – rebelled against the Il-Khanate although he
had in his possession the child Sultan Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw III.
Karaman Oğullari and other Turcoman Beys also joined Hatir Oğlu in the
failed rebellion. Hatir Oğlu was executed by the Il-Khanate, while Ghiyas
ad-Din Kaykhusraw III was forgiven due to “his youth and immense
pressure against him.”
In 1277, Baibars finally decided to accept the invitation and embarked on
a campaign against the Mongols to crown himself the Seljuk Sultan. It was
on the Elbistan plains (contemporary Maraş) that Baibars triumphed over
the Il-khanate and received a warm welcome from the population of
Kayseri
(May 1277). Baibars was crowned in
Kayseri
(Caesarea Mazaca) in the Seljuk fashion, and in his name a sermon was
delivered and coins struck. An interesting anecdote here is that during
his brief 10 day Kayseri visit, Baibars repeatedly told those around him:
“I am not here for looting but saving [the Seljuk Sultan] from Tatar
captivity.”
Meanwhile, Pervane – who still held Ghiyas ad-Din
Kaykhusraw III in his possession – continued to play both sides. Baibars
saw that carrying out a campaign too far stretched from their center was
not viable; his army already began facing food supply problems. He
therefore decided to return to his capital and left
Kayseri
. Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw III and Pervane sent ambassadors to Baibars
asking him not to leave; but Baibars was well aware of Pervane’s deceit
and uncertainty, hence turned down this offer and responded: “Please
tell his excellency [Pervane] that I have mastered the roads of Rum [Anatolia].
His mother, son and children of his daughter are with me. This is enough
for us. We have not intended to take the Seljuk crown for pleasure.
Recapturing
Jerusalem
and keeping our own crown would be satisfactory.”
Baibars’s Asia Minor Campaign that ended up in
Kayseri
would trigger another tragedy for
Anatolia
. Seeking revenge for his soldiers that were killed in Elbistan, Abaka
Khan entered
Anatolia
with 200.000 men and executed Pervane. Although Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw
III kept his seat, the Il-khanate Prince Kongurtai was appointed to
administer
Anatolia
. During Baibars’s Asia Minor campaign, Karaman Oğlu Mehmed Bey
captured
Konya
and looted the city. He crowned Siyavush (the ungenerous) son of Izz
ad-Din Kayka’us II, and struck coins in his name. Perhaps the most
important development during this period was the institutionalization of
Turkish as the official language. Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali, who was
Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw III’s new grand vizier, did not accept this
fait accompli and joined forces with the Mongols to fight against Mehmed
Bey and
Ala
ad-Din Siyavush – killing both in 1279. The Seljuk administration
naturally despised Siyavush, nicknamed him “tightfisted” and did not
see him as a member of the dynasty; furthermore, in a rather morbid and
un-princely manner they displayed his dead body.
Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw III, who was crowned as a
child and spent his youth under the circumstances discussed above, soon
found himself in yet another succession dispute. The children of his uncle,
Izz ad-Din Kayka’us II who died in Crimea, continued the rivalry for the
Seljuk crown even after the death of their brother
Ala
ad-Din Siyavush. Prince Mas’ud knew well enough to seek Mongol support
and joined Abaka, without whom claiming the crown was impossible. The
death of Abaka Khan in 1282 resulted in a crown dispute this time among
the Mongol princes. Tekudar Ahmad became the new Khan and engaged in a
fight with Prince Argun. Mas’ud made use of this opportunity and was
crowned as the new Seljuk Sultan replacing Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw III,
who was executed in 1284 for taking the wrong side in the Mongolian crown
dispute.
Although the people of
Konya
cheered the crowning of Ghiyas ad-Din Mas’ud II, he was in no position
to fulfill the expectations of the general populace. First of all, the
enormous living expenses of the Mongolian administrators and soldiers –
numbering around 10.000 – were financed by the Seljuk treasury. These
expenses were so heavy that Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali was desperately
looking for loans.
Besides the Mongol pressure, the never-ending crown disputes among Seljuk
princes, Germiyan, Karaman, and Eşrefoğlu Turcoman rebellions were
gradually bringing the end of the Seljuk dynasty.
Upon the death of Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali of
Konya
, who labored hard to survive the
Anatolian
Seljuk
State
, in 1288 Fahreddin Kazvini became the new grand vizier. During
Kazvini’s office Seljuk administration fell completely to foreigners
such as Persians, Mongols and Jews. Taxes were raised by ten times.
Failing to suppress the Turcoman rebellions, in 1292 Sultan Mas’ud II
invited Il-Khan Geyhatu, who held a strong animosity towards the
Karamanli’s and began brutal atrocities and looting. His massacres
continued in
Konya
, Muğla and other cities as well. While the Seljuks were dealing with
Turcoman uprisings, Mas’ud’s brothers Geyümers, Kilic Arslan and
Feramurz also raised different rebellions. Sultan Ghiyas ad-Din Mas’ud
II was able to check Feramurz and Kilic Arslan but was exiled to Hemedan
in 1296 for allegedly collaborating with Baltu Noyan, who rebelled against
the Il-Khanate.
After leaving the Seljuk crown vacant for two years,
Ghazan Khan took the advise of his grand vizier Sadreddin Halidi
and finally replaced Mas’ud II with his brother Feramurz’s son Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad III (r.1298-1302). At
this point however the
Seljuk
State
was in such a hopeless condition that even
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad III’s vizier Ahmed
Lakushi was appointed by Ghazan. Meanwhile, the Anatolian governor of the
Il-Khanate Sulemish rebelled against his ruler
with the support of the Mamluks. In response, Ghazan Khan sent Kutluğşah
to
Asia Minor
on
April 27 1299
, who crushed the rebellion in Erzincan and executed Sulemish.
Kayqubad III, who did not support Sulemish in his rebellion, left for
Tabriz
in order to leave
Anatolia
and submit his allegiance to Ghazan Khan.
Yet, when Kayqubad III arrived in Erzincan, the newly appointed governor
of Anatolia Nizameddin Yahya from
Tabriz
confiscated Kayqubad’s gifts for the sultan of Il-Khanate as a tribute.
When Kayqubad III finally arrived in
Tabriz
, he was welcomed for not participating in the Sulemish rebellion and
resided here for a while.
He was even wed to Hulagu’s daughter and attained great power and
influence.
Looking at the coins (Nr.001) that were struck in 1299-1300
C.E. (699 A.H.) under Mas’ud’s name, it is clear that when Ala
ad-Din III was in Tabriz Ghiyas ad-Din Mas’ud
III
served as an acting ruler during his father’s absence.
During this period, Mongol pressure
and cruelty in collecting taxes continued in
Anatolia
. It is unfortunate that
Ala
ad-Din III actively participated in Mongol brutality. According to
Aksarayi, he abandoned legal procedures and pursued violent methods in
taxing the wealthy families of
Sivas
,
Malatya
, Divriği and other places. In order to temporarily relieve the treasury
of fiscal crisis, the silver alloy of dirham was lowered down to 20
percent and later to an even lower level.
Upon growing complaints, the Il-Khan governor of Anatolia, Abışka Noyan,
called the Sultan, who was then in Sivas to his headquarters in the
Yabanlu plain in a rather condescending manner as if he was calling one of
his officers. Concerned about his life,
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad III tried to escape but was caught in the caves of Ürgüp
on his way to
Konya
. The Sultan was subsequently sent to Ghazan Mahmud Khan in
Tabriz
, but upon the request of his wife, who is a Mongolian princess, his
execution order was changed into torture and exile.
Ultimately,
Ala
ad-Din III died of a wound inflicted by someone accompanying him.
Osman Turan argues that the coins struck between
August 26 1302
and
August 14 1303
(702 A.H.) in
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad III’s name do not necessarily imply that he was the
ruler, who was actually deposed sometime between
September 6 1301
and
August 25 1302
.
According to Turan, even after
Ala
ad-Din was toppled, the casting molds were preserved and used for a while.
This situation might have lasted until the newly appointed Seljuk Sultan
Mas’ud II arrived in
Anatolia
in 702 A.H.
Perhaps the last remaining Beylik (emirate) that
still respected the Seljuqid dynasty and state during
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad III’s reign was the Menteşe Oğullari who occupied the
Karya region of the Anatolian southwest. The emirate was named after Menteşe
Bey, who was the father of its current ruler Mas’ud Bey and a naval
commander of the Seljuk coasts (Emir’üs Sevahil – emir of the
shores). This was a post that would later correspond to the Ottoman
Admiral-in-Chief’s office (Kaptan-i Derya). Historians now assume
that Mentese Bey breached the troubled
Byzantium
coastal defense line and through organizing Turcomans and Khwarezms (Harzem)
established his own emirate. As a sign of respect to the successive Seljuk
Sultans (Kayqubad III and Mas’ud II), under whose ancestors’ command
his father once held a respected office, Mas’ud Bey struck coins in the
coastal cities of Bafa, Milas, Megri, Finike and
Döğer (Map1). Hence, our research subject is the inscribed coins
struck in honor of
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad III.
In 1302, Ghiyas ad-Din Mas’ud II (r.1302-1310) was
crowned Sultan of the
Anatolian
Seljuk
State
for a second time. Yet, the already troubled
Anatolian
Seljuk
State
continued to experience crises during Ghiyas ad-Din Mas’ud II’s second
term. After a failed rebellion, the prominent Turcoman Bey Ilyas demanded
asylum from the Great Sultan Han (
Ala
ad-Din Caravanserai) while escaping from the Mongolian regiments between
Aksaray and
Konya
. Despite using heavy catapults with fire and stones, the Mongol forces
failed to capture Ilyas from the castle-like caravanserai. Angered by this
failure, the Anatolian Commander of Mongols İrencin Noyan punished
Kerimuddin Aksarayi – the prominent Anatolian historian and chair of
waqfs - with 6000 dirhams for each dead Mongol soldier for recently
renovating the building. Although not renovating damaged waqf buildings
should instead be a crime for someone holding Aksarayi’s post, the
opposite – repairing them – was considered a crime, which led Aksarayi
make the following remark: “This is one of the few events in our time
that is quite obscure.”
İrencin Noyan, carried out many brutalities in
Anatolia
to punish the collaborators. It is now known that Mas’ud II was
completely ineffective to prevent these atrocities. Deprived of his wealth
and impoverished, the Sultan died in
Kayseri
after a lengthy sickness.
There are also rumors that he poisoned himself out of sorrow for his
endless debts and continuous Mongol demands.
Therefore historians also assume that his son Kilic Arslan took up the
crown in 1310 and replaced Ghiyas ad-Din Kaykhusraw III. This period was
followed by yet another ineffective sultan, Kilic Arslan V, until 1318.
In this year, Timurtaş ended the Seljuk Dynasty effectively by killing
the remaining princes of the Seljuk dynasty. The chronology of this period
is very controversial. Bertold Spuler further complicated existing
historiography by using the following sentence: “[T]he Seljuk state
ceased to exist in 1317 with Mas’ud II’s successor Ghiyas ad-Din
Mas’ud III (son of
Ala
ad-Din Kayqubad III).”
Within the seven hundred years that elapsed since the fall of
Anatolian
Seljuk
State
, the Seljuqid masterpieces of civic and religious life have been
commemorated and will continue to be respected.
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